# Questions tagged [math]

For questions about mathematics related to artificial intelligence.

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### Understand the DDPG algorithm in Keras

I'm trying to understand the DDPG algorithm using Keras I found the site and started analyzing the code, I can't understand 2 things. The algorithm used to write the code presented on the page In the ...
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### Is ReLU a non-linear activation function?

According to this blog post The purpose of an activation function is to add some kind of non-linear property to the function The sigmoid is typically used as an activation function of a unit of a ...
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### Why does variational auto-encoder use the reconstruction loss?

VAE is trained to reduce the following two losses. KL divergence between inferred latent distribution and Gaussian. the reconstruction loss I understand that the first one regularizes VAE to get ...
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### Why are conics important in computer vision?

The book Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision by Richard Hartley and Andrew Zisserman talks about lines, points and conics. A conic is a curve described by a second-degree equation in the plane, ...
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### Derivation of regularized cost function w.r.t activation and bias

In regularzied cost function a L2 regularization cost has been added. Here we have already calculated cross entropy cost w.r.t $A, W$. As mentioned in the regularization notebook (see below) in ...
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### Why is my derivation of the back-propagation equations inconsistent with Andrew Ng's slides from Coursera?

I am using the cross-entropy cost function to calculate its derivatives using different variables $Z, W$ and $b$ at different instances. Please refer image below for calculation. As per my knowledge, ...
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### In a single neuron output layer should the output be a scalar?

Given a neural network with 3 inputs, 4 hidden layers, and 1 output, should the output neuron be a vector or a scalar? I thought that at the end of the summation only one number between 0 and 1 would ...
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### Interpretation of inverse matrix in mean calculation in Gaussian Process

The formula for mean prediction using Gaussian Process is $k(x_*, x)k(x, x)^{-1}y$, where $k$ is the covariance function. See e.g. equation 2.23 (in chapter 2) from Gaussian Processes for Machine ...
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### Understanding the derivation of the first-order model-agnostic meta-learning

According to the authors of this paper, to improve the performance, they decided to drop backward pass and using a first-order approximation I found a blog which discussed how to derive the math ...
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### Is there a possibility that there is no relationship between some inputs and outputs?

I'm doing machine learning projects. I took a look at many datasets I worked with, mostly there are already famous datasets that everyone uses. Let's say I decided to make my own dataset. Is there a ...
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### Expected duration in a state

I am going through Rabiner 1989 and he writes that the discrete probability density function of duration $d$ in state $i$ (that is, staying in a state for duration $d$, conditioned on starting in that ...
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### What are the variables used in a Gaussian radial basis kernel in the context of SVMs?

If I have the Gaussian kernel $$k(x, x') = \operatorname{exp}\left( -\| x - x' \|^2 / 2\sigma^2 \right)$$ What is $x$ and $x'$ in the context of training an SVM?
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### How is the expected value in the loss function of DQN approximated?

In Deep Q Learning the parametrized Q-functions $Q_i$ are optimised by performing gradient descent on the series of loss functions $L_i(\theta_i)= E_{(s,a)\sim p}[(y_i-Q(s,a;\theta_i))^2]$ , where ...
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### In the policy gradient equation, is $\pi(a_{t} | s_{t}, \theta)$ a distribution or a function?

I am learning about policy gradient methods from the Deep RL Bootcamp by Peter Abbeel and I am a bit stumbled by the math presented. In the lecture, he derives the gradient logarithm likelihood of a ...
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### Formal proof that every purely reactive agent has behaviorally equivalent standard agent

It kind of makes sense intuitively but I'm not sure about a formal proof. I'll start with briefly listing definitions from Intro to Multiagent systems, Wooldridge, 2002 and then give you my reasoning ...
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### Can we get the inverse of the function that a neural network represents?

I was wondering if it's possible to get the inverse of a neural network. If we view a NN as a function, can we obtain its inverse? I tried to build a simple MNIST architecture, with the input of (784,...
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### What is the mathematical definition of an activation function?

What is the mathematical definition of an activation function to be used in a neural network? So far I did not find a precise one, summarizing which criterions (e.g. monotonicity, differentiability, ...